Accounting Standards Essay

INTRODUCTION Accounting Standards are employed to build the application of accounting practice. The actual financial position of the company can not be presented accurately and precisely with adhering to the principles and standards. Due the evolution of time, the concept has changed to suit the needs of the industry and is also continuously to changing to needs. With rapid change and development of wealth, trade and technology, there was a need to account the business transaction due to intricacy involved. Due to the mode of writing and numbers which facilitated the accounting process. It is accountants who helped in the development of economic and commerce by providing valuable services to the community. See more: Satirical essay about drugs HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF ACCOUNTING STANDARD: Pacioli is being considered the father of the Accounting. The first double entry book-keeping was developed around 1200 B.C   in Italy followed by first book on double entry was written by Luca Pacioli in 1494. Due to the advent of Industrial Revolution around 1750, business expanded rapidly which catapulted mass transportation, invention of new products and new markets, development of capital markets and as the result, the role of accountant become inevitable to any industry. As development of trade grows, the need for professional accountants also nurtured in a fast pace. Society of Accountants was established in 1854 in Edinburg which was accorded a royal charter which recognized the profession’s role in the trade and commerce. In U.S, the first such professional society was the American Association of Public Accountants, chartered by the state of New York in 1887. Cost accounting was developed to augment the efficiency in the manufacturing Units. Management Accounting was developed to advise the business to make strategic business decisions. During 20th Century, United States has overtaken the British and become the leading industrial power in the world. The growth of industries like U.S. steel and Standard Oil demanded more classy accounting systems to keep track record of expanding business divisions within these huge business corporations.   As insiders of the industry took advantages by stock manipulations, price fixing and other questionable business practices mainly to derive benefits thereby depriving the interest of gullible investors. All the states of the U.S.A and Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia stipulates through law that an accountant should have specific educational and experience requirements and should passes an qualifying examination and will be granted a title known as Certified Public Accountants. [CPA]. Now, CPA’s have structured in to State and national societies. In United States, American Institute of Certified is the prime body representing accounting profession, which is the contemporary successor organization of the American Association of Public Accountants and the American Accounting Association organized in 1916. In United States , the Financial Accounting Standards Boards [ FASB] , an independent non-governmental organization supported by financial-reporting industry groups , is the nodal institution accountable for establishing accounting standards and rules whereas the International Accounting Standards Boards [ IASB] formulates rules and standards that are recognized and used by many nations. With fast growth of corporate activity, the need for sophisticated accounting methods has increased and accounting has witnessed many improvements in theory and techniques. The ever changing tax laws and regulations is causing change in accounting methods frequently as it is necessary to maintain homogeneous accounts for governmental statutory requirements or public scrutiny. A series of exposures pertaining to accounting firm’s failure to detect or openly challenge irregularities or fraud as in the case of World.com and Enron, when auditing finances of a number of corporations compelled Congress to establish the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board in 2002. Securities and Exchange Commission has been allocated power to appoint the above board to register and regulate accountants and firms to act as auditors. It sets standards for auditing and is responsible for reviewing audits and disciplining accountants and accounting firms.   [1] SIGNIFICANCE OF ACCOUNTING STANDARDS: Accounting standards are significant as they guarantee improved public accountability and offer effective and efficient functioning of the trade and commerce of a nation. They play a vital role for complete understanding of political, economical and social consequences of allocation and proper utilization of government resources both at the federal and at the State levels. Improper and bad accounting may lead to serious long term consequences .Accounting standards can be misused to offer misleading information of a business. FREE MARKET APPROACH OF ACCOUNTING STANDARDS: It refers to a method applied by private sector wherein creation of an economic market in which business is ruled by the laws of supply and demand and not by the unwanted government interference, subsidy or regulation. Under this accounting standard, voluntary disclosure of activity -based cost data which offers a new approach of functional process and provides more alternatives for decision makers. In a real free market, accounting standards would enhance as corporations and accountants vie to offer the best information to shareholders. In a free market, the aspiration for profit is satisfied by long-range, honest, rational behavior thereby innovating, by employing best employees, by offering quality products and by providing accurate information to investors. Business is required to provide accurate information to investors else it would loose its reputation and credibility in the market. The current FASB is so cumbersome and complex that an ordinary lay man finds it difficult to interpret the same. Most companies in U.S.A now started to follow dual reporting. For instance, AMD and Intel release two sets of accounting reports: one as per FASB guidelines which is mandated by the regulation and other based on simple accounting standards that they deem that it being more informative to shareholders. There are certain existing statues which refuse the shareholders to overthrow existing corrupt or incompetent management. For instance, Anti-hostile takeover legislation which was passed in 1968 has made it complex to replace incompetent management .Arcane regulations passed in 1930 limit the capacity of the financial entities such as insurance companies, pension funds and mutual funds that own major shareholding in corporations to participate in the board for decision taking and for joint deliberations. Hence, the opportunity to safeguard the interest is being denied by arcane regulations. If the U.S government is really interested in the healthy stock market, it should exhibit it by deleting, not adding, regulations and building the market truly free. PRIVATE SECTOR REGULATION OF ACCOUNTING STANDARDS Stock Exchange Commission [SEC] supports on an independent, private sector standards –setting process mainly through open and deliberate. Though the commission has the statutory authority to frame accounting principles , it has not do so for the last 60 years .Instead it has assigned the onus to the private sector for leadership in establishing and enhancing the accounting standards. It is the private sector standards-setting process, as supervised by the SEC has resulted in existence of a quality accounting standards and strong capital markets in USA as of today. EVOLUTION OF REGULATORY APPROACH: After the end of the First World War in 1919, there was spurt in investment in securities by investors. Around 1920, more than .02 billion large and small shareholders availed the benefits of post-war affluence and ready to avail sudden wealth from stock market and due to boom, more than $ 50 billion worth in new stock was floated during this time. The famous stock market crash in 1929 which was notoriously known as â€Å"Black Friday† resulted in loss of faith by investors on the capital markets. Many investors were turned as pauper over a night. It was observed that if at all economy was to recover, the public’s confidence on capital market required to be refurbished. Congress was forced to find out a solution for this problem and it held many deliberations on the subject and finally passed the â€Å"Securities Act of 1933 â€Å"and the â€Å"Securities Exchange Act† of 1934. The prime goal for the establishment of Securities exchange commission was mainly to enforce the fresh security laws, to build confidence, to provide stability to the market and last but not the least to offer protection to investors. Stock Exchange Commission [SEC] was toothed with mandate to formulate accounting principles and standards. It is to be noted that even though SEC was accorded the power to supervise the accounting practice, SEC is of the opinion that the private sector is having ample resources and ability to build up suitable accounting standards. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants [AICPA] had been in the field since 1887. As a federation of state societies, American Society of Certified Public Accountants was established in 1921 and later merged with the Institute during 1936. Due to persuasion from the SEC, the AICPA appointed the committee on accounting procedure in 1939. Committee on Accounting Procedure [CAP] released about 51 accounting research bulletin between 1939 and 1959. Though, these bulletins were able to solve the problems now and then as they emerged but could not address the issues relating to accounting principles. To resolve the accounting principles issues, AICPA established a new standard setting body in 1959 namely the â€Å"Accounting Principles Board† [APB].The main goal of the APB is to establish appropriate practices, formulate accounting principles and to minimize the discrepancies in practices. Though the APB released about 31 opinions between 1959 and 1973, it was dissolved for absence of productivity. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles [GAAP] are an anthology of conventions, procedures and rules that describe accepted accounting practices. Though it is not accorded as mandatory by any statute, SEC advises that it should be followed in all financial reporting of publicly traded companies. GAAP can thus be explained as a cluster of conventions and objectives that have been developed over time to oversee how financial statements are being prepared and presented. The three nodal authorities’ viz. the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, The Financial Accounting Standards Boards and Exchange Commission offer regulation concerning acceptable accounting practices. The GAAP is founded on four basic assumptions as per the details below: Economic Entity concept- It stresses the business as a separate entity and to segregate income and expenses of business from that of personal. Going concern assumption which assumes that business will carry on for a longer period to validate the methods of capitalization of assets, provision for depreciation and amortization. Monetary unit assumption which fixes US dollar as the monetary unit for accounting purpose Periodicity assumption facilitates recording of business operations and separating into different periods. This is mainly to facilitate for comparison between past and present performance of the business.   FASB’s basic principles are detailed below: Historical Cost Principle- This requires business to account and report on cost of acquisition basis rather than present market value of the assets and liabilities. Financial reports and statements are prepared in accordance with set of rules , procedure and standards for reporting financial information known as the â€Å" Generally Accepted Accounting principles† (GAAP) , as established by the Financial Accounting Standard Board ( FASB). This standard stipulates that a company â€Å"account for all of their assets or economic resources according to their historical cost.† (Horngreen, Stratton & Sundem, p.6) Revenue Recognition principle or accrual basis of accounting requires business to record when the revenue is realized or earned and not when the cash is earned. Matching principle – Expenses has to be matched with the revenues where it is possible Full disclosure principle- Business should offer all the significant information relating to the company though it may not affect company’s financial statements. For instance, Tax disputes, lawsuits, takeover information and possible contingent liabilities of the business are to be disclosed by way of footnotes to the financial reporting. INHERENT DISADVANTAGES OF THE FASB Cost –benefit relation ship: It emphasizes that benefit of offering financial information should also be weighted against cost of providing it. Materiality- It refers to the significance of the item reported and it is to be weighed amount reported will have impact on third party’s decision based on the information provided. The Industry Practice Constraint – Conservative approach stresses that it is better to understate the financial statements rather than overstating it. The after effects of Enron, WorldCom, Inc have forced the Congress to enact Sarbanes Oxley Act in 2002.   The other accounting reforms announced is the creation of Public Company Accounting Oversight Board [PCAOB] to supervise the audits of the Public companies. PACOB has been entrusted with wide authority to regulate the auditing profession. PACOB has been toothed with powers like imposing civil penalty and to impose permanent revocation of an auditing firm’s ability to audit public companies. 8, SWITCHING TO PRINCIPLES BASED ACCOUNTING SYSTEM: There is strong suggestion from various quarters that U.S should abandon the current â€Å"rules-based† system in favor of a â€Å"principles-based accounting†. If that happens, the critics are of the view that all the current difficulties being faced by U.S financial reporting would be alleviated or eliminated. Further section 108 of the Sarbanes –Oxley Act of 202 stipulates that SEC to conduct a study on the adoption of a principle based accounting system. [2] CONCLUSION: Globalization offers both impetus and opportunity and it is time to streamline the FASB guidelines in tune with changing scenario.[3] It is to be noted that FASB has recently issued special report on Leases thereby implementing a new approach, is recognition of the need to review existing standards. Hence it is necessary not only to review its leases guidelines but for all current standards. The current FASB is high technical and complex in nature and may not help the investing public to understand the same without the guidance of professionals on the subject. When most of the countries around the globe have switched from complex to simpler guidelines, U.S can also follow them. In setting standards on national or global basis, technical correctness is regarded as less important than the comparability among reporting entities. Globalization in commerce here has become the order of the day and U.S accounting standards must reflect true global interests. Sticking to technically sound accounting standards would not help to develop acceptable, meaningful international standards. FASB should take avail this opportunity to update and even change the standards. The accounting profession and accounting standard setters should unite together in their effort to assure simpler, more beneficial and easy to understand U.S and worldwide accounting standard. BIBILIOGRAPHY Van Riper, R. 1994, Setting Standards for Financial Reporting: FASB and the Struggle for Control of a Critical Process. CT: Quorum Books. Westport. Hartgraves, A. L., & Benston, G. J. 2002, â€Å"The Evolving Accounting Standards for Special Purpose Entities and Consolidations†. Accounting Horizons, 16(3), 245+. Barker, Richard, 2004, â€Å"Reporting Financial Performance.† Accounting Horizons 18, no. 2 157+. Bekesford, Dennis R. 1999,†It’s Time to Simplify Accounting Standards.† Journal of Accountancy 187, no. 3: 65. Beresford, Dennis R. 2001,†Congress Looks at Accounting for Business Combinations.† Accounting Horizons 15, no. 1: 73. Derieux, Samuel A. 2000,†Let’s Reassess Accounting Standards.† Journal of Accountancy 189, no. 5: 82. Dye, Ronald A., and Shyam Sunder. 2001,†Why Not Allow FASB and IASB Standards to Compete in the U.S.?† Accounting Horizons 15, no. 3: 257. 1992,†The Financial Accounting Standards Board.† Journal of Accountancy 173, no. 6: 4. Fleming, Peter D. 1991,†The Growing Importance of International Accounting Standards; Arthur R. Wyatt, Chairman of the International Accounting Standards Committee Heralds International Harmonization.† Journal of Accountancy 172, no. 3 100+. Gornik-Tomaszewski, Sylwia, and Irene N. McCarthy. 2003,†Cooperation between FASB and IASB to Achieve Convergence of Accounting Standards.† Review of Business 24, no. 2: 52+. Hartgraves, Ai L., and George J. Benston. 2002, â€Å"The Evolving Accounting Standards for Special Purpose Entities and Consolidations.† Accounting Horizons 16, no. 3: 245+. Herrmann, Don, and Ian P.N. Hague. 2006, â€Å"Convergence: In Search of the Best CPAs Should Understand How U.S. and Foreign Accounting Standards Influence Each Other.† Journal of Accountancy 201, no. 1: 69+. Houston, Melvin, and Alan Reinstein. 2001, â€Å"International Accounting Standards and Their Implications for Accountants and U.S. Financial Statement Users.† Review of Business 22, no. 1: 75. Monson, Dennis W. 2001, â€Å"The Conceptual Framework and Accounting for Leases.† Accounting Horizons 15, no. 3: 275. Nobes, Christopher W. 2005,†Rules-Based Standards and the Lack of Principles in Accounting.† Accounting Horizons 19, no. 1: 25+. Radig, William J., and Brian Louder milk. 1998,†Leading the Way to Uniform Accounting Principles.† Review of Business 19, no. 3: 22+. Schipper, Katherine. 2003, â€Å"Principles-Based Accounting Standards.† Accounting Horizons 17, no. 1: 61+. Silliman, Benjamin Rue. 2005,†Convergence of Accounting Standards: A Comparative Analysis of the U.S. Revised Standard on Share-Based Payment and the International Accounting Standards Board’s IFRS 2.† Review of Business 26, no. 2: 24+. Wyatt, Arthur R., and Joseph F. Yospe. 1993,†Wake-Up Call to American Business: International Accounting Standards Are on the Way.† Journal of Accountancy 175, no. 7: 80+. [1] Encyclopedia Article Title: Accounting. Encyclopedia Title: The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Publisher: Columbia University Press. Place of Publication: New York. Publication Year: 2004. [2] Article Title: Principles-Based Accounting Standards. Contributors: Katherine Schipper – author. Journal Title: Accounting Horizons. Volume: 17. Issue: 1. Publication Year: 2003. Page Number: 61+. [3] Article Title: Let’s Reassess Accounting Standards. Contributors: Samuel A. Derieux – author. Journal Title: Journal of Accountancy. Volume: 189. Issue: 5. Publication Year: 2000. Page Number: 82 Accounting Standards Essay Now-a-days, more and more enterprises are being managed by the professionals. The persons who provide risk capital to the enterprise do not participate in the day-to-day affairs of the enterprise and their major source of information about the enterprise is the financial reporting made by it. Apart from the providers of risk capital, there are other stakeholders also which include prospective shareholders, bankers, creditors, etc. , who use the financial reporting made by the enterprise to make their economic and financial decisions. In such a scenario, it is absolutely essential that financial reporting of an enterprise is unbiased, comparable, transparent and free from bias. This necessitates the existence of a sound financial reporting system in country which is based on the Accounting Standards. Realising the need for establishment of sound Accounting Standards in the country, the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI), being the premier accounting body in the country, established the Accounting Standards Board (ASB) way back in 1977. Since then, the Accounting Standards Board has been working relentlessly in this direction by formulating new Accounting Standards as well as by revising the existing Accounting Standards so as to bring them in line with the best international practices. With a view to improve the quality of financial reporting in the country in real terms, it is also essential that the issues that are arising in implementation of accounting standards are addressed appropriately so that all Accounting Standards are understood and applied in the manner intended. Keeping this in view and with a view to ensure effective implementation of these standards, the Institute has also issued various interpretations, revised existing interpretations and issued announcements on accounting standards. Keeping in view the continuous changes that are taking place in Accounting Standards, Accounting Standards Interpretations and announcements on accounting standards, it is imperative on the part of the Institute to make all such pronouncements/ announcements available in one single book and revise it from time to time. The Institute has, therefore, been publishing the Compendium of Accounting Standards which contains all new/ revised Accounting Standards and other related pronouncements/ announcements, issued upto the date of publication of the Compendium and which are existing on that date. I am happy to state that continuing this practice, the Institute is publishing this Compendium of Accounting Standards – As on July 1, 2006, which incorporates all latest developments in the field of Indian Accounting Standards. I firmly believe that this edition of the Compendium will be extremely useful not only to the members of the Institute in discharging their professional duties but also to the preparers of financial statements and other users of accounting standards. New Delhi November 17, 2006 T. N. Manoharan President Preface In recent years, there has been an unprecedented increase in the awareness about the need for and importance of Accounting Standards in the country. The accounting standards which lay down sound and wholesome principles for recognition, measurement, presentation and disclosure of information in the financial statements improve substantially the quality of financial reporting by an enterprise. The accounting standards tend to standardise diverse accounting practices with a view to eliminate, to the extent possible, incomparability of information contained in the financial statements of various enterprises. The accounting standards also improve the transparency of financial statements by requiring enhanced disclosures. Realising the significance of accounting standards in improving the quality of financial reporting, the accounting standards have been granted legal recognition under the Companies Act, 1956, which require accounting standards to be followed by all companies. Apart from the Companies Act, 1956, various regulatory bodies, e. g. , the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA) also require compliance with the accounting standards issued by the Institute by their respective constituents. This is a clear manifestation of the significance of the accounting standards and high quality of accounting standards being issued by the Institute. With so much faith being reposed by the law and various regulatory authorities in the accounting standards issued by the Institute, the responsibilities of the Institute as an accounting standard-setting body has increased tremendously. The Institute, through its Accounting Standards Board, has been trying to discharge these responsibilities by issuing new accounting standards as well by revising the existing accounting standards. Apart from ssuing new accounting standards and/or revising the existing accounting standards, the endeavour of the Institute has also been to address the issues arising in the implementation of accounting standards through issuance of new interpretations, revision of the existing interpretations and issuance of announcements on accounting standards. With the regular developments taking place in the area of acc ounting standards, there is a need to publish an updated version of the Compendium of Accounting Standards, which incorporates all the relevant developments that have taken place since the publication of the last edition of the Compendium. As compared to the last edition of the Compendium of Accounting Standards in 2005, this edition incorporates limited revisions to two accounting standards, viz. , AS 15 (revised 2005), Employee Benefits, and AS 29, Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets; which were issued subsequent to the last edition. Besides this, one new Accounting Standards Interpretation, two revised Interpretations and six new Announcements on Accounting Standards have also been incorporated. The Compendium also includes a comparative statement of International Accounting Standards/ International Financial Reporting Standards and Indian Accounting Standards as on date, to apprise the users about the comparative status of Indian Accounting Standards vis-avis the International Accounting Standards/ International Financial Reporting Standards. I would like to take this opportunity to place on record my appreciation of the efforts put in by all the persons involved in the formulation of accounting standards at relevant times. Accounting Standards Essay In your opinion are accounting standards necessary and to what extent? Do you agree with the view that mandatory regulations stifle innovation ? why? Give reasons? * Accounting standards are necessary to promote high quality financial reporting. The fundamental role of accounting is to communicate economic information about businesses and other organization to various stakeholders (government, investors, shareholders, suppliers, lenders, customers and the general public). * These stakeholders use such information to take decisions and to assess the stewardship of people appointed to manage such organizations. If this information is not of a high quality standard, then the stakeholders would be unable to take effective decisions that will benefit them. For example, if a financial report is manipulated to show higher profits, investors would hold on to their shares with the belief that the company is doing well. See more: Is the Importance of being earnest a satirical play essay * Good and useful information should have the essential characteristics of understandability, comparability, relevance and reliability in order to play its role effectively. Accounting standards serve to promote the understandability , comparability, relevance and reliability of financial reports. * Accounting standards are needed so that financial statements will fairly and consistently describe financial performance. Without standards, users of financial statements would need to learn the accounting rules of each company, and comparisons between companies would be difficult. Here are other reasons why accounting standards are important to every business. Protecting Investors By employing accounting standards, investors’ interests are ensured as the documents they review are definitely accurate and genuine. As investors, they are interested to know that their money will eventually earn and go back to them. Accounting standards increase the investors’ confidence in the business. Regulatory Compliance Government regulators set accounting standards that have to be adhered to by all companies. This is both beneficial to the investor or business owner as well as to the customers or clients because it protects them from frauds in businesses. It also promotes transparency among the business’ transactions which will eventually lead to the improved efficiency of the markets. Following accounting standards set by the FASB and the IASB will help prevent a company or business from spending on legal actions initiated by the government against it. Assessing Business Performance The use of accounting standards will enable a business to see or assess its performance. By doing so, they can also compare and contrast their business’ performance with other companies or competitors. It further helps a business see its strengths and weaknesses. By also comparing past and current performances, a business can assess the success of its strategies. Businesses will either prosper or fall. Depending on the trends and the economy of the country, an investment may grow or go down the drain. But in the end, accounting standards will make a difference. That is why all businesses have to follow and strictly adhere to accounting standards.

Gary Mckinnon Report

Professional Practice Ethical Case Study for Part 2 Gary McKinnon Introduction This report discusses about ethical issues that has been quoted from the Guardian â€Å"the biggest military computer hack of all time. † Gary McKinnon a Systems administrator from Glasgow; born 10 February 1966 who is suffering Asperger’s Syndrome and has been blamed upon of hacking into the United States Government computer systems. He presumably â€Å"states that he was merely looking for evidence of a UFO cover-up, the suppression of Free Energy, and other technologies potentially useful to the public. However the damages have resulted from this incident cost more than $800,000 of the Military and NASA’s computer security. This all first began in 1983 when Gary went to go to his local cinema to watch the movie WarGames, about a whiz kid who had hacked into the Pentagon, from an interview with Jon Ronson; The Guardian, Gary said that from this movie he did not mean it to actually c ome true, and had a thought in mind that he would work for the department of defence or NASA, on the other hand this is not the case for Gary’s case.Between the years 2001 and 2002 Gary McKinnon was arrested under the Computer Misuse Act in the UK just after the 9/11, and got bail by 2005. During that year the US government had started the â€Å"extradition proceedings,† Gary would face up to 70 years jail in the US, which would of exceeded to be sent to Guantanamo Bay, yet comparing the US punishment towards the UK it is considerably less. This case is still active, and McKinnon’s mother has prevented extradition from a long campaign.This report will look further in detail of what has been discussed above, as well as: * Gary’s Supporters/Appeal * Issues on his Disability * Damages on the US security These are the Ethical Issues which I think that should be discussed about Gary McKinnon’s case. Ethical Issues Surrounding Gary Mckinnon On August 200 8 Gary McKinnon’s Legal team settled on yet another appeal, this then lead onto finding out the fact that Gary McKinnon was diagnosed with Asperger’s Syndrome, but before the appeal Gary’s legal team made sure that the appeal would be granted first.Asperger’s Syndrome’s symptoms can come across â€Å"repetitive patterns of behaviour and interests,† and I think that this can clash against what has been mentioned before about the movie that Gary had seen when he was 17 about the whiz kid that hacked into the Pentagon. This may have affected Gary’s thoughts and even quoted from an interview â€Å"I didn’t mean it to actually come true. † From his interests and curiosity of UFO’s and other aspects, I do not think that anyone expected the result from all that has happened.Gary McKinnon was accused of hacking into 97 different NASA and the United States computers in the years 2001 and 2002, he had used the name ‘S olo’ and had additionally got accused of hacking into various networks that was used by US Army, Navy, Air Force, Department of defence and NASA. In the USA Gary McKinnon currently have up to 20 charges which include: * Obtaining USA Top Secret Documents * Intentionally damaging Computer protection software’s * Interfering with maritime navigation equipment * Stealing computer files * Deleting critical computer files * Deleting Navy Weapons logsThe list that is shown above is just a few out of the damage that Gary caused USA. With all this that has been accused upon Gary McKinnon, he denied of causing any damage arguing against his search of UFO information. However he did admit that he left a threat on one computer, this referred to how useless the USA computer security was especially after the 9/11 attacks, he will carry on disrupting at high levels. His statement represented his belief that the 9/11 attacks was an inside job. What Gary attempted to prove was that on ce you’re on the network called ‘NetStat’, this would list the connections to that system of the US army/NASA etc.And Gary was not alone; there had been hackers from Italy, Denmark, Turkey, Thailand and more doing the same as Gary. Hackers from all over the world were just simply going through files without any of the military realising. He had been doing this for more than 5 to 7 years just looking through files until the day that he got caught. Gary had been through many unfair trials such as McKinnon Vs United States 2008 which the defendant disputed â€Å"that the plea bargain constituted ‘unlawful pressure’ and had amounted to an abuse of process†.This case was then dismissed because the case was not proven enough to oppose extradition. On the other hand with another case in 2009 McKinnon Vs Secretary of State of Home Affairs it was discovered that Gary is suffering Asperger’s Syndrome and he claimed that it would clash against the European Convention on Human Rights. The Outcome There have been many supporters for Gary McKinnon, with websites, and even grown to be supported by the National Autistic Society and Liberty, this campaign that is been running by groups of people would hopefully end the extradition.There are groups online from Facebook, Twitter many web forums to show that the public believe that he should not be extradited. More with cross party politicians supporting and ‘high profile individuals’ such as Stephen Fry and Jonathan Ross. To get more people to support Gary, a petition had been arisen to support him to stop his extradition before it is too late. With the entire case in hand, the two countries have come across a huge disagreement, the US is simply wanting the extradition to take place so that Gary McKinnon can get up to 70 years in prison, with the UK trials 70 years is undoubtedly not close to that number.But without finding out that he has suffered Asperger’s Syn drome, for the people who have supported Gary McKinnon has said that he is â€Å"less blameworthy for his crimes†¦ does not necessarily mean that he can distinguish right from wrong. † There are still many questions for Gary and the future, Will Gary McKinnon’s Asperger’s Syndrome get worse and end up change his sentencing? Should people with mental disabilities be treated differently under our legal system? Conclusion For different people there are different opinions about Gary’s entire case, many people found him guilty as they seen him as deleting and intruding on mportant files from the US. Others had and still are supporting him to prevent him from getting extradition. What is the case with Gary McKinnon till this day? Currently Gary would have to face an extradition case during May 2010 just after the general election for the UK; this would mean that after the election this would leave a new government which could possibly lead into Gary McKinn on’s favour, in support of Gary; the opposition ‘Tories’ have tabled against UK-US extraditions.Also Gary’s mother ‘Janis Sharp’ has announced her candidacy to stand against ‘Jack Straw’ former Labour Home Secretary and current Minister in Blackburn (Lancashire) but confusingly Jack Straw is the least person to blame for the situation that Gary is in, he was the foreign secretary with the UK government who which negotiated with the US government that resulted in the Extradition Act 2003. Personal ReflectionWhen I first went through this case study, I was surprised and shocked in the situation that Gary McKinnon was in, I had never heard of this even though it was all over the international news and had a huge effect on the US government. With my initial thoughts I was against Gary McKinnon that he had hacked into the US and deleted important files and I immediately thought that he would be sent to prison. However I read on with th e case study that was given, researched on his situation and his court cases and then realised that this was a two way condition with arguments from two countries, whether he should have to face extradition or not.I had read on the Guardian with an interview with Gary from Jon Ronson and read along the lines that he did not mean to delete any files; it was just a matter of researching his quest of finding information on UFO’s. Then in the Wikipedia information it stated that he did admit on showing a threat referring that the US Governments security was not safe at all and many people had hacked in it many times from all over the world.With my thoughts I would support Gary McKinnon, there are many people from around the world that are hacking into the US Army, Navy, Air Force, Department of defence and NASA. With Gary’s case he had been through a lot, with the United States after him, suffering Asperger’s Syndrome and having to trial against the US for up to 7 y ears. I think that it could possibly end for him if the May 2010 British elections go the right way for Gary McKinnon.

How Important Are AP Scores for College Admissions?

As college admissions become increasingly competitive, any possible edge can seem like it might be the difference between a coveted acceptance or a dreaded rejection. Grades, standardized test scores, extracurriculars, and more may all seem to be the highest of stakes. When it comes to AP classes, you might wonder if this is the factor that might tip the college admissions game in your favor. In this post, we’ll outline just how important your AP classes are in college admissions, and the answer may surprise you. Do admissions committees even look at your scores? How much do they actually matter? To learn more, keep reading. Typically, AP scores don’t go on your college application. Because they don’t count towards your GPA or become a part of your transcript, there isn’t actually any place on the application where they are required. There is, however, a place on most college applications where you have the option to report these scores yourself. This process is called self-reporting. In this section, you can self-report any scores from standardized testing, including AP scores. To learn more about this section of your college application, see our post Do I Have to Self-Report My Test Scores? . Since this section of your application is optional, you do not have to report AP scores. In fact, if you choose to do so, you can also choose specifically which scores you submit. If you want to report AP scores, you should definitely report tests on which you received a five. While a single score of five on an AP exam isn’t necessarily impressive, a string of fives might help to set you apart from other candidates. A score of four is less impressive, but it still shows a relatively strong understanding of the material. Fours are usually neither favorable nor unfavorable when you report them on an application. At less selective schools, a variety of fours and fives will set you apart. Scores of three or lower aren’t usually enough to give you any edge in admissions and might even have an negative impact on your application. These are best left off when you self-report your scores. Ultimately, you should be prepared for the admissions committee to review everything on your college application, including self-reported scores. While they may not be as important as other required portions of the application, they may sometimes serve to set you apart when admissions committees need to choose between two or more applicants. The weight given to your AP scores will vary depending on a number of different factors. In general though, you should not consider AP scores as a make it or break it factor in your admissions process. That being said, at very selective schools, admissions committees always receive applicants from far more qualified students than they have places for in the incoming class. Due to this high level of competition, successful applicants will need to distinguish themselves in highly recognizable ways. A series of perfect AP scores can be one example of your academic prowess. If you are applying to a general studies program, you can show your ability to achieve across multiple subject areas by scoring well on a variety of AP exams. Likewise, if you’re applying to a specialized program or under a specific major, you can demonstrate your level of knowledge in that field by submitting the corresponding AP scores. On the other hand, if you choose to report scores that are unimpressive, they could just as easily count against you in a competitive admissions process. Given the choice between two similar candidates, an admissions committee is probably more likely to select those who submit high scores or no scores at all, rather than students who submit dismal ones. Our Early Advising Program helps students in 9th and 10th grade discover their passions and build strong academic and extracurricular profiles to succeed in high school. AP test scores are not generally a highly weighted component of your college application, but if you choose to submit them, they will generally be reviewed by the admissions committee. The amount of weight they are given will vary by school, and in general the more competitive the admissions process is, the more these smaller factors might play a role in distinguishing between similar candidates. Just because AP scores are not necessarily a primary factor on college applications does not mean that AP classes are unimportant. In fact, at many selective colleges, you need to take the most challenging courses available at your high school in order to be considered a serious applicant. In many cases this means taking AP classes if they are available at your school. While your score on the AP exam might not be reported, your grade in these classes definitely is, and your GPA is generally a primary factor on your college application. Remember, AP classes are designed to be college level work, so your performance in them is indicative of your ability to perform at the college level. Furthermore, if you score well on your AP exams, you may be able to earn college credit or place out of lower level prerequisites when you start college. These policies vary from school to school but in general you can them available on the school website. Specific regulations can be found here . To learn more about AP classes and course selection in general, see these posts: If you want to ensure that you’re on track for college admissions success or would like some help with class selection, consider the benefits of the Near Peer Mentorship Program , which provides access to practical advice on topics from college admissions to career aspirations, all from successful college students.

Congress and State legislatures policy communication Assignment

Congress and State legislatures policy communication - Assignment Example Communicating these systems pose a challenge as no precise meaning can be conveyed. The US Department of Health and Human Services as an example consists of many offices that are faced with communication problems. Practical implementation of public policies is difficult since there are no clear directives that can be followed (Hayes, 2013). Guidelines give meaning to a system, therefore, when they lack clarity, implementation becomes difficult. A vague policy is used to create an impression on the service recipient that something is being done to solve a problem (Hayes, 2013). Vague and ambiguous policies are deliberately passed to give reassurance to the people and give them confidence in the Congress and Legislature. Vague policies give the President and Congress an opportunity to claim credit for the high-sounding principles enacted into law (Fonow. and Cook, 2014). The president and Congress can avoid taking responsibility for any unpopular actions that administrators must take to implement new policies. Vague public policies lack accuracy and consistency in transmission creating biases in interpretation from the people who disagree with the policy. A struggle comes about in maintaining accurate communications of these policies as no precise meaning is conveyed. There cannot be effective implementation of public policies since there are no clear directives that can be followed. Vague policy communication is useful in cases where Congress and the president do not know what to do about a problem. They create an impression to the service recipient that something is being done to solve a problem. They give the president and Congress an opportunity to avoid taking responsibility for any unpopular actions that administrators must take to implement new

Wo'men and society Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Wo'men and society - Assignment Example In Sneak Attack, it is evident that the militarization in the United States is highly attractive. Regardless of this nature, the entire process is not as beneficial since its main goals and objectives are based on enhancing its ability to be controlling. As cited by Kirk & Okazawa-Rey a process cannot be viewed as beneficial if the results it displays are controlling (481-482). The same process of militarization determines the direction of the rights of women. Considering the controlling nature of the process, the rights of women as exposed to greater risks. As cited in Gender and Human Security, there are occasional and significant changes on global security. For this reason, the need to improve the response to violation of human rights should be ensured. Specifically, the response mechanism should mostly focused on women who suffer the most from war and conflict (Kirk & Okazawa-Rey 500-501). The increasing cases of gender based violence require development of more effective mechanism that would minimize the severity of the

Efficient Market Hypothersis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Efficient Market Hypothersis - Essay Example While the extent of the validity of these criticisms remains debated, the efficient-market hypothesis (EMH) has held a pronounced influence on political and academic thought. This essay considers the extent that the market, as Warren Buffet claims, functions under irrational processes, or can be explained in rational terms through the efficient market hypothesis. Outline of the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) In its modern incarnation Professor Eugene Fama first articulated the efficient-market hypothesis in the early 1960s during his time at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business. From an overarching perspective, the efficient market hypothesis theory contends that for investors it is impossible to ‘beat’ the market on a consistent basis. The main reasoning behind this notion is that the market will reflect all available information for the particular investment, such that gaining any sort of edge over other investors is made impossible. This contention do es not necessitate that individuals act in rational ways. Indeed, the efficient market hypothesis understands that a number of individuals will both over and under react to available market information. The cumulative impact of these reactions results in market efficiency, as the random reactions will fall proportionally along a normal distribution pattern. In these regards, it’s possible for an individual to be right or wrong about the market, but the market itself is necessarily an accurate reflection of available asset information. Structural Components There are three major versions of the efficient market hypothesis, each of them resting on a different part of a spectrum of efficiency. The first version is the weak-form efficient market theory. Within this perspective all prices on past publically traded assets, including stocks, bonds, and property, already have factored into them all publically available investment information. The semi-strong version of the hypothesis takes this a step further and argues that current asset prices reflect all publically available information and that when new information emerges prices change instantly to reflect this new public information. The third version of the efficient market hypothesis is the strong-form version. The strong-form version of the hypothesis goes even further in that it argues in addition to asset prices immediately reflecting public information, asset prices also instantly reflect insider or otherwise concealed information. Analysis Seminal Literature There are a number of seminal studies that established core elements of the efficient market hypothesis. While Fama first articulated the theory in its modern context, its original formulations were explored as early as the 19th century. Kirman (2009) notes that French mathmetician Louis Bachelier established many of the general tenants of this theory in his ‘Theory of Speculation’ published in 1900. The early years of the 20th cen tury witnessed another prototypical formulation of this perspective in the random walk model; this was a notion that stock prices operated through random steps and as such gaining a long-term predictive edge was

Trust Property Law Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Trust Property Law - Term Paper Example Law of equity and trust confers the provision regarding the trust. It laid down several duties and responsibilities for the trustees. Moreover, there are provisions like co-ownership, proprietary estoppels, fiduciary relationship etc. Apart from this, one of the prominent features of trust is, it can be raised from either trust deed/covenant as said before or by the Will, i.e. a testamentary trust is a trust created by a Will or a codicil to a Will. A testament is a Will. of or includes land and the trustees of such a trust are trustees of land. Any description of trust includes an implied resulting or constructive trust and a bare trust. (1) An implied trust is based on the presumed intention of the parties at the time the property is acquired by the resulting trustee. That is the point at which the contributors' beneficial interests crystallize. The beneficial shares are unaffected by subsequent conduct. This scope of implied trust has been rightly explained in Cowcher v Cowcher (2). Moreover, a trust can be defined as a "land" which includes land of any tenure and property divided either vertically or horizontal (as in the case of a block of flats) and easements but does not include an undivided share in the land. (3)Now we shall scrutinize how far the scope of trust of land and its various ingredients will help to analyze the issues brought up in the given problem.Before deciding the rights of Ayesha and Ben in the property, the meaning and significance of the concept co-ownership and beneficial joint tenants are to be explained. Beneficial joint tenantsCo-ownership (4) is where a person is entitled to hold the land together with others who have simultaneous interests at the same time they are said to hold concurrently. Where ever there is co-ownership there will be a trust of land. There are 2 types of co-ownership 1. Trust of land and Appointment of trustees Act 1996, sub-section (1) (a) 2. Cowcher v Cowcher [1972] 1 WLR 425 (CA) 3. Law of property 1925 Act, Section 205(1) (ix)4. Law of Property Act 1925, Sec 1Â  

Basis of the first phase of your overall MC plan Essay

Basis of the first phase of your overall MC plan - Essay Example Marketing communication is a process which helps the marketers to communicate information’s like product related information to potential consumer segment. They utilise this method to convey information about product value, existence, and benefits associated with it. It encompasses one of the four elements of the marketing mix. Designing an effective communication process provide marketers an opportunity to attract, create urge, persuade, and remind about the existing brands of a company. In recent times, the scope related to marketing communication has increased. Marketers are using various unique method and techniques to create awareness of their products (Yeshin, 1998). The marketers have to integrate different aspects related to marketing communication to derive maximum benefit from the implementation of any such plan. In the process of developing a marketing communication plan for a product Lemon, lime flavoured beer a zero based marketing communication plan is prepared (Belch, 2003). A zero based marketing communication planning process provides a marketing communication planning team of an organisation, the necessary understanding of what kind of tools are to be utilised while preparing a plan. In this process a particular year’s situational analysis is conducted (BSA Marketing, n.d.). Also SWOT analysis and communication objectives analysis help in preparing a proper planning according to the desired need. In the beginning of this process, key marketing communication related problems are identified. In the next step, by using various marketing communications tools, solutions are searched for the problems. In the given context also, for devising a marketing communication plan for a new brand, a complete situational analysis along with SWOT analysis has to be conducted. The plan also has to prepare keeping in mind the communication objectives. In the first phase of preparing a marketing communication plan, a target audience for the intended product

Analyzing Messages Carried in an Advertisement Essay

Analyzing Messages Carried in an Advertisement - Essay Example A meticulously construed advertisement has the power to deliver the same meaning to a host of different people through its overwhelmingly powerful imagery and symbolism. The advertisement under discussion (please see Appendix ‘A’) represents a strong combination of visual symbols that produce provocative thought in order to stimulate one to buy. The central symbol or icon is a Lolita who is depicted as being totally nude. The point in using a Lolita is rather simple – creating desire. In the Greek era, young boys embodied the essence of beauty and hence desire. The tale of Narcissus for example tends to highlight that Greek sexuality centered largely on the beauty and desirability of young boys. In a similar manner, modern Western civilization sees young girls as the embodiment of beauty and desire. The concept of Lolita has come to signify the ultimate object of desire for most in the Western world when it comes to sexuality. The advertisement uses this symbol as a central focus for anyone viewing the advertisement so that the concept of desire becomes the theme of this advertisement. In addition using the concept of Lolita has another deeply seated purpose. ... The perfume being advertised is nonetheless meant for the female audience and there would seem little point in creating desire between one woman viewing the advertisement and another posing suggestively naked in it. Rather than promote attraction between women, the advertisement is targeted to the female audience’s sexual sides so that, as mentioned before, female viewers are able to bring their own sexual side into focus. Women viewing this advertisement are provided with a strong statement along with a provocative question. The central icon is without a doubt beautiful and desirable which is a strong statement2. On the other hand, the female viewers of this advertisement ask themselves if they are like this central icon which represents a provocative question. The contention of the advertisement’s designer is to bring forth such a comparison so that the viewer asks themselves what they would require in order to be like the Lolita in the middle of the advertisement. An other thing that needs to be kept in mind when analyzing this advertisement is the projection of a Lolita who is desirable yet unattainable. The image of the girl in the middle hints at this in two different ways – the confident and self-assured look on her face provides one justification while the method she uses to place her arms near her waist signifies her personal assurance. This methodology again is not meant for the male audience but rather for the female audience who are shown a beautiful woman who is playing hard to get. The use of such symbols to provide the image of a beautiful, desirable yet hard to get Lolita is something that nearly every woman from every demographic segment wants to become. It could thus be said that the portrayal of this young

Iconography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Iconography - Essay Example There have been divisions within the Christians over the use of icons, such as the Iconoclasts vs. the Iconodules (787 a.d.). The iconodules won their argument, over time, that icons were an integral part of the Christian tradition. Adoration of icons was not taken literally as love for the icons themselves but the meaning of them. It is said that St. Luke, the Evangelist, was the first iconographer when he painted an image of the virgin Mary on a panel, a woman he is thought to have actually known. The Byzantine Empire is known for its abundance of iconographs. The symbols used in iconography must relate to that which is apparent to people of the culture or time in which they are created. For instance, the color gold, in Eastern Orthodoxy, means the radiance of Heaven, while red is the color of martyrs (wikipedia.com 2006). Dragons are a symbol for sin and temptation. The wheel that St. Catherine was tortured on is an example of overt symbolism. In more recent times, submerged iconography was incorporated into works of art. Two examples are Jan Van Eyck's iconographic painting and Hieronymus Bosch's painting, The Garden of Earthly Delights. The differences in their iconography are striking. In Van Eyck's work, The Adoration

How do I write a report Essay Example for Free

How do I write a report Essay Report writing differs from essay writing because it has a different purpose. Reports are common communication tools as they assist in the decision-making process. Written for a particular purpose, they usually outline a problem, provide the relevant facts and ideas related to the situation, and then recommend a course of action. Reports are highly structured so that information they contain can be easily understood. Headings within the report allow the reader to select the parts they wish to read. Headings also enable each section of the report to stand-alone. The structure of a report is enhanced through the use of subheadings, diagrams, tables, graphs, illustrations etc. Reports are highly structured so that information they contain can be easily understood. Headings within the report allow the reader to select the parts they wish to read. Headings also enable each section of the report to stand-alone. The structure of a report is enhanced through the use of subheadings, diagrams, tables, graphs, illustrations etc. As a student, you will be asked to write reports to show that you have investigated or researched a particular problem. Although each subject coordinator may have slightly different requirements and/or ways to structure reports, the following is an example of a basic report format. Remember to always check each Subject Outline for individual subject requirements. A 10-step plan of how to write a report (Sanders 2000, p. 200). 1. Consider the aim of the report and who will read it. 2. Plan your investigational approach. 3. Gather information. 4. Organise the information you have gathered. 5. Analyse the material. 6. Decide your conclusions. 7. Decide your recommendations. 8. Plan your writing. 9. Write your draft. 10. Edit and prepare the final copy. As presentation of your report is very important, you should: follow the guidelines recommended in your Subject Outline; check the accuracy of the support data and facts; check that your argument is logical and that the conclusion and recommendations flow logically from the data you have presented; explain terms which the reader may not know, or where clarity requires it; explain symbols, abbreviations, diagrams and statistics if necessary; label and number all diagrams; tables; graphs; illustrations etc. be consistent in the use of a numbering system; headings; font size and type; use a clear and concise style of writing; layout the report in a clear and uncluttered format; be meticulous with your use of references; check that your argument is logical and that the conclusion and recommendations flow logically from the data you have presented. Basic report format: Title Page Table of Contents Synopsis/Executive Summary This is tells your reader what the report is about as it describes the topics or issues discussed; indicates the depth of the discussion; as well as  providing a summary of the recommendations and reasons for them. It is usually one paragraph of approximately 120 words. Usually this is not included in your word count. If in doubt, check with your Subject Coordinator. 1. Introduction This tells your reader what you’re going to tell them in the body of your report. Your introduction gives the background to the report; why it is useful; what other objectives are; the purpose of the report; the limitations of the report 2. Heading This is where you begin the discussion, outlining relevant facts and events. This is the main body of the report, and is divided into sections (headings) and subheadings. 2.1 Subheading 2.2 Subheading 2.3 Subheading 3. Heading 3.1 Subheading 3.2 Subheading 3.3 Subheading 4. Conclusion This is where you give an overview of the material presented in the discussion and an interpretation of the relevant facts and events. 5. Recommendations These are drawn from your conclusions. Your recommendations outline the specific actions that are required. When detailing your recommendations you may also need to consider who will action them; how they will be measured; and the timeframe for the recommendations. The priority that you place on each recommendation may also be required. References A listing of all resources referred to in the report; assembled in author alphabetical order. These are not included in the word count. Refer to Topic 9 of this guide for more detail. Appendices The appendices include related materials, if appropriate. These are not included in the word count. These are optional for the reader, that is, the reader can choose whether they refer to them or not.

Road to Independence Notes Essay Example for Free

Road to Independence Notes Essay People are reconsidering the policy of colonialism. 1. After WWII, people questioned whether dictatorship was a good idea. 2. â€Å"All nations should be free from the power of other nations. † 3. Keeping colonies had a high cost. It wasn’t worth it. 4. Colonized people pressed harder for freedom. Ex: British-held India II. A Movement Toward Independence A. The Indian’s strive to freedom intensifies. 1. British had power over India for 2 centuries. 2. Britain drafted Indians into WWII in 1939 without the consent of the the colony’s representatives. . Gandhi launched civil disobedience and many who followed were arrested. 4. To gain favor of the Indians, Britain promised government changes after WWII, but didn’t offer freedom. B. Besides colonialism, India struggles with internal conflict. 1. They have religious disagreements. 350 million Hindus 100 million Muslims 2. The Congress Party (aka Indian National Congress: India’s national political party) was made up mostly of Hindus, and a few Muslims. C. The Muslim League is created. 1. The Muslim League (1906) is the organization against the mostly Hindu Congress Party, aimed to protect Muslim interest. . (The leader) Muhammad Ali Jinnah asked all Muslims to leave the Congress party. He would not accept independence from Britain if it meant staying under Hindu rule. III. Freedom Brings Turmoil A. The decision of who receives power is being made. 1. The British lost much wealth after WWII, and was ready to turn over their power, since keeping up with colonies was cos tly. 2. The power will either be given to Hindus or Muslims. B. Muslims resisted Hindu domination. 1. Rioting broke out and in 1946, there were 20,000 casualties in a 4 day clash in Calcutta. C. Pakistan was created. 1. To maintain peace, Britain decided to partition (division of Indian religions into separate nations; idea first brought up by Muslims) India. 2. North western and eastern part of India became Pakistan which was dominated by Muslims. D. Everything in India was being divided. 1. British granted India and Pakistan a month of independence in July 16, 1947. 2. Princes had to decide which nation they’d join. 3. The civil service (courts, military, railways, police) was divided. 4. The differing religions had to decide where to go. E. One million people died during the move to their new nation. 1. Muslims killed Sikhs moving to India. 2. Sikhs and Hindus killed Muslims going to Pakistan. 3. Gandhi went to the Indian capital (Delhi) to ask for mercy, but was killed by a hindu extremist in January 30, 1948. F. Hindus and Muslims fight for Kashmir. 1. Kashmir is at the northern point of India next to Pakistan. 2. It had a Hindu ruler, but the majority of people living there was Muslim. 3. Fighting continued until UN arranged cease-fire in 1949. 4. One-third went to Pakistan (Muslims) and the rest to India (Hindus). IV. Modern India A. India has become the world’s largest democracy. 1. India gained independence in August 15, 1947. 2. Jawaharlal Nehru (the independent nation’s first prime minister) addressed India’s freedom. B. Nehru is the leader. 1. He served the first 17 years of India’s independence as leader. 2. He was a devoted follower of Gandhi. 3. He emphasized democracy, unity, and economic modernization, and became very popular with all Indian groups. C. Nehru pushed India forward. 1. He led newly independent nations into making alliances with other non aligned nations. 2. He reorganized the states by language and pushed for industrialization and social reform. 3. He raised the status of those in lower class (lower castes and women). D. A new leader came. 1. Nehru died in 1964. 2. His daughter, Indira Gandhi, became prime minister in 1966, left office, and was re elected in 1980. E. Challenges set on Indira caused more violent acts and death. 1. Sikh extremists wanted an independent state. 2. The Golden Temple was the Sikh’s religious center. 3. The Sikhs attacked symbols of Indian authority, so Indians troops overran the Golden Temple, killing 500 Sikhs and destroying sacred property. 4. Indira was gunned down by Sikh bodyguards and another murder spree occurred, killing thousands of Sikhs. . Indira’s son, Rajiv, became prime minister, but lost power because of corruption. He was then killed. F. Atal Bihari Vajpayee faced problems. 1. The leader of the nationalist party of India, Vajpayee, faced challenges of overpopulation and strife among religions. 2. The struggle between India and Pakistan was bad, now that they became nucle ar powers. India exploded a nuclear device in 1974. For 24 years, India improved nuclear capability in private. In 1998, 5 nuclear tests were conducted. Pakistanis also showed they had nuclear capabilities. The nuclear weapons of both rival groups became an international concern, especially because of Hindus and Muslims continuous struggle over Kashmir. V. Pakistan Copes with Freedom A. Pakistan was already very turbulent and had differences between West Pakistan and East Pakistan. B. The two regions of Pakistan struggled with each other. 1. A tidal wave hit East Pakistan and killed 266,000 residents in 1970, calling for international aid that West Pakistan was not eager in giving. 2. East Pakistan protested and called to end all ties with West Pakistan. C. Pakistan undergoes its own partition. 1. On March 26, 1971, East Pakistan became Bangladesh. 2. Civil war broke out. Indians sided with Bangladesh and Pakistan surrendered. 3. 1 million people died. 4. One-seventh of area and one-half of the population in Pakistan was lost. D. Pakistan is instable. 1. After the death of the first governor general of India, the nation had no strong leader and went through many military coups. First in 1958 by Ali Bhutto Second in 1977 by General Zia Third Benazir Bhutto, Ali’s daughter, became prime minister. Fourth, Sharif in 1997. VI. Bangladesh and Sri Lanka Struggle A. Bangladesh faces many problems. 1. War brought economic and communication issues in Bangladesh. 2. Sheik Mujibur Rahman became the first prime minister of Bangladesh. Interested more in power than making reparations 3. Bangladesh tries to become democratic and fraud and corruption was common. Recently, it has been more stable and Begum Khaleda Zia became prime minister in 2001. 4. Natural disasters were troublesome. Bangladesh (low-lying) is subject to cyclones, tidal waves, massive storms which floods lands, ruins crops, takes lives, and homes. 5. Rapid growth in population put stress on the economy. B. There is civil strife in Sri Lanka. . Sinhalese Buddhists and Tamil Hindus make up the two main groups in Sri Lanka. 2. Tamils wanted to become a separate Tamil nation and violence occurred in order to do so. Rajiv Gandhi and the president on Sri Lanka made an agreement that called Indian troops to disarm Tamil rebels. A civil war between Tamils and Sri Lankans still exists. New Nations in Africa: Chapter 34 Section 3 I. Setting the Stage A. Africa was also a nation victim to colonization. B. Like India, they were unwilling to return to colonization after WWII, so they also won their independence and went on to creating new African nations. II. Achieving Independence A. A movement is made for Black Heritage. 1. The French-speaking Africans and West Indians grew pride for traditional Africa. 2. The Negritude movement (movement to celebrate African culture, heritage, and values) was formed. B. WWII changed the views of colonies and colonizers, which helped Africa gain independence from 1950s-1960s. 1. The African joined Europeans in WWII to defend freedom, and were unwilling to return to colonization. 2. The European colonizers developed morale and wondered whether it was a good idea to still hold colonies. In addition to morale, maintaining colonies was costly and wasn’t viewed as something worth losing money for. C. Africa achieved independence in a unique way. 1. Unlike other colonized areas that pushed for independence, Africa was colonized indirectly and directly. Those who were ruled indirectly were able to enjoy limited self-rule and were ruled by local officials. They achieved independence more easily. Those ruled directly were governed at all levels by foreigners and did not have any self rule. To get independence, they had to fight wars. D. Africa struggled even after they gained their independence. . They had to start from scratch: creating a new gov. , and establishing postcolonial economy. 2. Internal conflicts made it hard create stable nations. When colonized by Europeans, Africa was separated by random and many tribes who shared the same culture were divided and enclosed with rival groups, causing violence. III. Ghana Leads the Way A. The Gold Coast, a British col ony, achieves full independence. 1. The Gold Coast (South of the Sahara) achieved independence, so British allowed for Africans to be nominated for legislative council. 2. However, they wanted full freedom and created a group. . Kwame Nkrumah (leader of the nonviolent group) organized strikes and boycotts, and was also imprisoned many times, (starting in 1947) eventually being able to liberate the Gold Coast from the British government. B. Good intentions called for opposition against Nkrumah. 1. The Gold Coast became Ghana (from the Ghana Kingdom of Africa) after it received its independence in 1957. 2. Nkrumah, the first prime-minister and president for life, pushed for industrialization by building new roads, schools, and health facilities. 3. His programs were too costly, and people began to oppose him. C. Ghana still continues to struggle. 1. Nkrumah was criticized for neglecting economic issues. 2. When in China (1966) he was replaced by the police and army in Ghana. 3. The power shifts between civilian and military rule, and Ghana struggles economically. 4. 2000 marks the first open election in Ghana. IV. Fighting for Freedom A. The British is forced to allow Kenyan self-government. 1. The British were unwilling to give Kenyans independence because they’ve taken over prized farmland in the northern highlands of Kenya. 2. The Kenyans had 2 developments which forced British to surrender. Jomo Kenyatta’s (Kenyan nationalist) strong leadership. The Mau Mau, a secret society of mostly native Kenyan farmers forced out of the highlands by British people. B. The Mau Mau fight for independence. 1. Guerilla tactics were used to push out the British from the highlands. 2. Kenyatta had no connection to the Mau Mau but did not stop them from fighting for their freedom. 3. Kenyatta was imprisoned for about a decade. 4. Kenya was granted independence in 1963, however, 10,00 Africans and 100 settlers died. C. After gaining independence, Kenya still faced some struggles from poor leadership. 1. Kenyatta became the president and worked to reunite various groups in his nation, but he died in 1978. 2. He was succeeded by a weak leader, Daniel arap Moi. 3. Under Moi’s leadership was opposition to his one-party rule, corruption, and conflicts between ethnicities killing hundreds and making thousands homeless. 4. He left office in 2002, and a new party gained power through elections. D. Algeria wins independence through battle. 1. Algeria had a population of 1 million French and 9 million Arabs and Berber Muslims. 2. French did not want to share political power with the natives even after WWII. . The FLN (Algerian National Liberation Front) would fight for freedom, and upon hearing this, the French sent half a million troops to fight the FLN. 4. The FLN won and gained independence in July 1962. E. Uncertainty within Algeria calls for civil war. 1. The FLN leader, Ahmed Ben Bella, becomes president and attempts to make Algeria follow socialism, but is overthrown. 2. From 19 65-1988, Algeria tried to modernize, but failed. Religious fundamentalists wanted to make Algeria an Islamic state because they were dissatisfied with the current government and high unemployment rates. 3. The Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) won elections in 1990 and 1991, but the government and army refused the results. 4. Civil war broke out between Islamic militants and the government, and goes on and off until this day. V. Civil War in Congo and Angola A. The people of Congo were unprepared for independence, and it led to turmoil. 1. Belgians colonized and plundered Congo taking all its riches and resources such as rubber and copper. 2. They gave no social services to the natives of Congo, and did not prepare them for independence. 3. They granted Congo (aka Zaire from 1971-1997) independence in 1960, which cause upheaval, and civil war. B. Congo goes through two leaders. 1. Years of civil war sprung up, and Mobutu Sese Seko (aka Colonel Joseph Mobutu) seized power in 1965. He renamed Congo to Zaire and ruled it for 32 years. He held control over Zaire with force, one-party rule, and bribing supporters with gifts. He withstood rebellions. 2. In 1997, he was overthrown by Laurent Kabila (rebel leader). Zaire was renamed The Democratic Republic of Congo. C. Kabila wasn’t the leader people hoped for, and a new leader rises. 1. He became president and promised a democracy, but never delivered it. 2. Civil war broke out again, and rebel groups wanted to overthrow Kabila. . He was assassinated by a bodyguard in 2001. 4. Joseph Kabila, his son, took power and pushed for peace. 5. Rebels stopped rebelling in 2002 in hope that the peace may come. D. Angola (South West of Congo) fought for independence. 1. Angola was ruled by the Portuguese who were unwilling to let go of their colony. 2. An independence movement broke out and Portugal sent 50,000 troops to end it, which wiped out half of Portugal’s budget. 3. The cost of war and the war’s opposition in Portugal called for them to withdraw from Angola in 1975. E. Civil war broke out in Angola. 1. Angola became a new nation, and the MPLA (Communist leaning â€Å"Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola†) declared itself as the government. 2. Rebel groups fought against the government for power. 3. 50,000 Cuban troops and Soviet Union supported the MPLA. 4. South Africa and the U. S. supported the UNITA (the major opposition to the MPLA; â€Å"National Union for the Total Independence of Angola†) 5. The MPLA and UNITA abandoned many cease-fire agreements, but in 2002, a peace accord was agreed to and the civil war ended. Conflicts in the Middle East: Chapter 34 Section 4 I. Setting the Stage A. By the end of WWII, Jewish finally gained its own state, which proved to have bad consequences. 1. The Jewish gained a state that was located by the Mediterranean Sea. 2. It consisted of mostly Arabs who rejected the creation of a Jewish state. 3. Palestinians claimed Jewish states to be theirs, therefore opposing Jewish states. 4. Wars were fought between Jews and Arabs, and Jews and Palestinians. II. Israel Becomes a State A. Palestinians, Jews, and Arabs all claim the same lands (Israel, West Bank, and the Gaza Strip in modern day Palestine). 1. Jews’ reason: 3,000 before, Jewish Kings ruled the lands from Jerusalem. . Palestinians’ reason: land was theirs since Jewish exile on A. D. 135. 3. Arabs’ reason: their conquest of the lands in the 7th century (600s). B. The Jews wanted to return to Palestine and gain a Jewish state centuries after their exile. 1. The Jewish were unable to gain their own state after their exile, and dispersed around the world (Diaspor a). 2. Zionists (people who favored a Jewish state in Palestine) started returning to their homeland during the 19th and 20th centuries (1800s-1900s). C. A British idea of creating a Jewish homeland in Palestine cause sparks between the Jews and Palestinians. 1. The British directed Palestine (League of Nations’ commands) as a result of the loss of the Turkish Ottoman Empire in WWI. 2. Many Jews were in Palestine, and pressed for their own nation. 3. Palestinians opposed the idea, so when Secretary Sir Arthur Balfour of Britain proposed creating a Jewish state while keeping the rights of non-Jewish communities (Balfour Declaration) and the plan failed, tensions rose between Palestinians and Jews. D. The U. S. and many European nations felt sympathy towards the Jews, who were targeted in the Holocaust, so they devised a plan that would give Jews what they desired. 1. The UN General Assembly voted for partition in Palestine, one part being a Palestinian state, the other being a Jewish state, and Jerusalem being an international city owned by no one. 2. The Jews made up 34% of the population but gained 55% of the land. E. The partition was set, although Muslims and Palestines rejected it. 1. â€Å"The UN has no right to make such a proposal without first consulting the majority who will be affected by it. †- Muslims and Palestinians. 2. David Ben Gurion (leader of Jews in Palestine) announced that the independent nation of Israel was formed on May 14, 1948. III. Israel and Arab States in Conflict A. War broke out between Israeli and Arab states. 1. The first one (won by Israel) was a day before Israel became a nation, where Islamic states (Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi, Arabia, and Syria invaded Israel. B. The partition wasn’t fully effective because of fighting. 1. Israel seized half of Palestine in 1948-1949. 2. 600,000 Palestinians left to nearby UN sponsored refugee camps. 3. Arabs also seized Palestinian lands. C. War broke out in 1956 during the Suez Crisis. 1. Egypt seized the Suez Canal. 2. Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egyptian president) sent troops to seized the canal controlled by British because he was angry that the U. S. and British stopped financially supporting Egypt’s Aswan Dam. 3. Britain formed an alliance with France and israel to regain the Suez canal. 4. Israel defeated the Egyptians using air support of their European allies. 5. The war ended when the U. S. and Soviets forced Israel and Europeans out of Egypt, ultimately giving Egypt the Suez Canal by the end of the Suez Crisis. D. Another war broke out in 1967, called the Six-Day War. 1. Nasser and Arab allies, equipped with Soviet tanks and aircraft were ready to confront Israel and close off Israel’s outlet to the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aqaba. 2. Israelis knew Arabs would attack, so the struck airfields in Egypt, Iran, Jordan, and Syria, and ground forces defeated Arab states in this Six-Day War. 4. Israelis gained the lands around them (Jerusalem, Sinai Peninsula, The Golden Heights, and the West Bank). 5. They served as buffers for future attacks. 6. Palestinians living in Jerusalem chose Jordanian citizenship, and others not living in Jerusalem went other Jewish control. E. A fourth War broke out in October 1973, called the Yom Kippur War. 1. Anwar Sadat,(Egyptian president who succeeded Nasser) planned an Arab attack on Israel during Yom Kippur. . Sadat was able to reconquer land lost in the Six-Day War. 3. Golda Meir (prime minister of Israel during the Yom Kippur War) counterattacked and regained most the land. 4. After weeks of fighting, a truce was declared. F. Palestinians pushed for recognition and its own state. 1. The UN had given Palestinians its own state during the partition, but the land given was seized by Is raelis during their vast amount of wars. 2. The PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) was organized by Palestinian officials in 1964, and initially consisted mostly of social workers, like teachers, lawyers. 3. Guerilla fighters then dominated the PLO and insisted that to get what they want, it needs to be done by means of struggle. 4. Yasir Arafat became PLO’s chairman in 1969 and carried out attacks on Israel, which was supported by Arabs, since they were able to operate on Arab land. IV. Efforts at peace A. An attempt of peace was made by Anwar Sadat. 1. In 1977, he declared that Israeli parliament (Knesset) and Arabs make peace, with the terms that Israel returns the land they took in the Six-Day War and recognize Palestinian rights. B. An agreement is reached between the Israel and Arab country. 1. President Carter invited Anwar and the Israeli prime minister, Menachem Begin, to a presidential retreat, Camp David, Maryland, 2. There, Begin and Sadat negotiated, and finally in 1979, Carter announced that Egypt recognized the Israeli state and Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula, in an agreement called the Camp David Accords. C. Peace was maintained even after Anwar’s assassination. 1. Muslim extremists were enraged at his plan for peace, and killed him. 2. Hosni Mubarak maintained the peace. D. Tensions increased between Israelis and Palestinians. 1. The military of PLO intensified its armed struggle with Israel during the 1970s-1980s. . Israel responded by bombing bases of Palestinian towns and invading neighboring countries such as Lebanon, to destroy Palestinian strongholds. 3. Israel became involved in the Lebanon civil war and was forced to withdraw. 4. Palestinians showed their frustration with civil disobedience (using boycotts, attacks on Israeli soldiers, demonst rations, and rock throwing) called intifada (uprising) in 1987. 5. This put global pressure on Israel, which forced them to organize peace talks with Israeli and Palestinian delegates on October 1991. E. The peace talks made little progress, so a new document was made. . Secret talks in Oslo, Norway produced an agreement called the Oslo Peace Accords (Declaration of Principles), which stated that Palestinians have self-rule in the Gaza Strip and West Bank, beginning with the town of Jericho. 2. The agreement was signed on September 13, 1993 by the Israeli prime minister, Yitzhak Rabin, and Arafat. F. The agreement was hard to work out. 1. A Jewish extremist, who opposed concessions to Palestinians, assassinated Rabin in 1995. 2. He was succeeded by Benjamin Netanyahu, who also opposed the Oslo Accords, but was willing to keep to the agreement. . He met with Arafat in 1997 to discuss Israeli partial withdrawal from the West Bank. V. Peace Slips Away A. The peace agreement is stalled. 1. Prime Minister Ehud Barak (1999) supported the peace plan more t han Netanyahu. 2. (2000) Bill Clinton hosted a summit meeting between Ehud Barak and Arafat in Camp David, but they couldn’t reach a compromise. B. A second intifada was launched. 1. An Israeli political leader, Ariel Sharon, visited the Dome of the Rock, a reverend place for Muslims. 2. Muslims were outraged and broke out a new intifada. 3. The second intifada was much like the first one, but instead, included suicide bombers which called for more bloodshed. 4. The Israelis responded by bombing possible Palestinian refugee camps, where extremist could be hiding. They also bombed Arafat’s headquarters. C. Peace seems far from being reached. 1. Ariel Sharon became the prime minister of Israel in 2001, and refused to negotiate with the Palestinians if the attacks of suicide bomber continued. 2. Israeli officials declared to no longer meet with Arafat, who had strained relations with many Israeli leaders. D. A solution for peace is being worked on. 1. Arafat agreed to lessen his involvement in peace talks, and the first prime minister of the PLO, Mahmoud Abbas, was appointed in 2003. 2. George W. Bush brought together Sharon and Abbas to work on a peace plan called the â€Å"road map. † E. Sharon and Abbas are willing to find a solution. 1. Sharon declared that he looks for the day when Palestinians can govern themselves in their own state. 2. Abbas declares that the goal was for Israel and Palestine to live side-by-side in peace and security. Central Asian Struggles: Chapter 34 Section 5 I. Setting the Stage A. The region of Central Asia changes throughout history because it has been invaded by many powerful groups (Mongols, Byzantines, Ottomans, and the rulers of the Soviet Union. B. The people of this region still tried to keep its culture, and longed to create their own nations. 1. It was made possible with the fall of the Soviets Union. C. They were faced with challenges in making strong independent nations. II. Freedom Brings New Challenges A. Two geographic areas are made. 1. The Soviet Union fell in 1991. 2. Their republics in the south became 15 independent nations which were split into two geographic areas. 3. Transcaucasian Republics (Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia) lies between the Black and Caspian seas, on the Caucasus Mountains. 4. Central Asian Republics (Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan) lies east of the Caspian sea and extends to the Tian Shan and Pamir mountains. B. These independent nations deeply depended on the Soviet Union for economic help, so they could not be independent. C. The Soviets made economic practices which weakened these nations’ economy. 1. Eg: The Soviets made Central Asian Republics available farms grow cotton, and having only a single crop made the economy unbalanced. D. Azerbaijan can receive income through its richness in oil, because of the Caspian Sea. Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan are still tapping into their oil reserves. E. Ethnic and religious differences causes conflict. F. With the fall of the Soviet Union, who prevented the nations from fighting because of the ironfist rule, the ethnic groups began to battle. 1. Eg: Azerbaijan (Muslim country), which surrounded Nagorno-Karabakh (Armenian Christians), battled the Armenians during 1991-1994 when the Armenians pushed to be a new independent nation. III. Afghanistan and the World A. Afghanistan (mostly Muslim nation), which is the least developed country (it was inhabited by farmers or herders), surprised the world with war against the Soviet Union and U. S. B. Afghanistan had many struggles already. 1. Russia wanted Afghanistan because it was near the Indian Ocean 2. British wanted to protect the northern border of its Indian Empire with Afghanistan’s land, eventually fighting 3 wars prior to 1919. C. Afghanistan tries to modernize. 1. In 1919, Afghanistan declared itself a new independent nation, setting up a monarchy. 2. In 1964, reforms and a switch to a democratic government was proposed. . Officials could not agree on reforms, and people people were not interested in the Afghanistan government, so the proposals did not carry out. D. Communism starts to influence Afghanistan. 1. Afghanistan became stable enough to have ties with the U. S. and Soviet Union. 2. They were nonaligned during the Cold War and received support from both sides. 3. They were closely situated with the Soviets. 4. Military leaders overthrew the government in 1973 and rival groups who had close ties with Soviet communists seized power in 1978. 5. Communism conflicted with Islamic teachings. E. The Afghanis stayed loyal to their religion and did not fall to communism. 1. Those who believed that communism conflicted with Islamic teachings formed a group called Mujahideen, who freely fought and rebelled against the government supported by the Soviets. 2. The Soviets heard about this and tried to conquer Afghanistan in 1979-1980 as a new nation in its communist empire. 3. Afghanistan was supported by the U. S. and used guerilla warfare and their knowledge of the terrain to their advantage. 4. In a bloody 10 year war, the Soviets withdrew, and Afghanistan won. F. With the Soviets gone, rebels groups fought for power, and the victor was the Taliban. 1. They were a conservative Islamic group who were controlled 90% of the country by 1998. 2. They turned out to be Islamic Extremists who made strict rules that controlled every aspect of life (woman could not have jobs or go to school, you couldn’t listen to music or watch TV) and punished those who did not listen (severe beating, amputation, and execution). G. The Taliban played a major role in terrorism. 1. They allowed terrorists to train in Afghanistan. 2. They provided refuge to the al-Qaeda leader, Osama Bin Laden. 3. After September 11, the Taliban was asked to give up Osama Bin Laden, but they refused. 4. The U. S. bombed Taliban air defense, airfields, and command centers. 5. The Northern Alliance (anti-Taliban force) was supported by the U. S. and finally was able to overthrow the Taliban. H. Hamid Karzai, the selected leader after the overthrow of the Taliban, would find it hard to stabilize a nation who has been under decades of warfare, and he would also find it difficult to unite a nation with 12 different ethnic groups.

Vertigo, 1958 | Film Analysis

Vertigo, 1958 | Film Analysis Vertigo is a 1958 suspense thriller directed by Alfred Hitchcock, written by Alec Coppel and Samuel Taylor and based upon the 1954 novel Dentre Les Morts by Pierre Boileau and Thomas Narcejac. Starring James Stewart, Kim Novak and co-starring Barbara Bel Geddes. James Stewart plays the part of detective John Ferguson or Scottie as he is known throughout the film, who develops a fear of heights, acrophobia, after he watches a policeman fall to his death during a police chase over the San Francisco rooftops. Following the incident, Scottie retires from the police force, but old friend Gavin Elster (Tom Helmore) hires him as a private detective to follow his wife, Madeleine Elster (Kim Novak) as she has been behaving strangely. Elster believes that she is possessed by the ghost of a dead relative, Carlotta Valdez. It is not long before Scottie starts to find himself becoming obsessed with the beautiful but troubled Madeleine and falls in love with her. As the introductions roll onto the screen, we are confronted by a close up of a black and white womans face, first her lips, her nose, her eyes, then onto one eye, where we can see a tear Her gaze only briefly meets ours, when we first see her eyes, but then they are skirting from left to right. The music gets more intense and the scene turns red, as the eye we are focused on widens in what we can only assume as shock or horror. We then see coloured patterns, starting first in the pupil, then swirling round on the black screen, gradually becoming larger and enveloping the screen and the audience. This setting of emotion and involvement of the audience in what is to be classed as misà ©-en-scene; the creation of emotion through visuals and audio. Fig. 9 Introductory scenes The opening scene underpins the whole of Scotties acrophobia, and as an audience, we also get to experience what it is hes feeling. The music is tense, we can see the skyline, we see them jumping from roof to roof, then we see Scottie slip, hes clinging on to the gutter by his fingertips to stop himself from plunging to a certain death. The other policeman turns to help him, asks him for his hand, but he falls from the roof, to the ground hundreds of feet below. The distance and acrophobia is highlighted by the view on the ground below panning in and out toward us. People who suffer with vertigo feel as if they or their surroundings are moving. These false sensations are often accompanied by a feeling of spinning (Smith et al, 2000: 603). It has also to be noted that psychologists believe there is tension from the feeling of vertigo, whereby there is a desire to fall yet there is a dread of falling. The audience is made to feel the fear and terror that Scottie is experiencing, the fe eling that death is so close, could be so easy. To survive he has to desperately cling to the gutter, his arms and body stretched to their capacity, his mind full of terror, whereas to die, he only has to let go. Within this scene, the audience is given minimal information. We see three men in sequence climb over the top rung of a ladder, the second being a policeman, so we assume the first is a suspect? Thirdly, there is Scottie, but he is in plain clothes, so he could be anybody, but he must be connected to the policeman as he is pursuing him. This is shown as three close up shots, then we have panned out to reveal all three men running across the roof. In turn, they jump to another roof. This is when we see Scottie slip. This can be related to Freuds theory of the Id, Ego and Superego. The Id is the first man; he wants his urges satisfied regardless of society, his focus solely on his pleasure, relative to criminality. The second man, being the policeman, can be shown as the Supe rego, with strict and rigid morals, relatable to the father. It is also in this scene that we can take into account the Oedipus Complex, the son, Scottie, is responsible for the fathers, the policemans, death as he tries to save him from falling, whilst the Id has got free into the darkness. Scottie is left hanging from the gutter; we never see how it is he escapes this situation, leaving him metaphorically stuck there for the remainder of the film. Wood also mentions this theory in his book when he revisits Hitchcocks films. Fig. 10 Hanging and falling Another thing to take into account here is Freuds relation between events and birth trauma and the separation between mother and child. Although he said that a child couldnt recall these memories, they were still instilled within our subconscious. So the idea of falling is, in a way, a re-enactment of birth trauma and separation. This was thought to be at the forefront of anxiety. In the next scene, we are placed within Midges apartment. It is constructed on separate shots between Scottie and Midge and the male/female space in which they inhabit throughout the conversation. They are defined by definite objects, such as Scotties cane and the bra that Midge is sketching. Scottie is re-affirming that he will be free of the corset that is binding him tomorrow, taking back him masculinity and power within the situation. It is only at three points throughout the scene that Midge and Scottie are shown together. Firstly, when Scottie approaches Midge to talk about the bra she is drawing-she speaks of it in a very matter of fact way, telling Scottie that he is a big boy and knows of such things. Next, Scottie talks of curing his acrophobia a small step at a time, he stands on a stool, Midge takes over the situation by bringing him a set of steps to climb, which she encourages him to do so. He sees out of the window between the buildings, like the scene he saw when hang ing from the gutter at the start of the film, but we are still held in reality by the flowers on the windowsill, but his vertigo grips him again. Even the security of Midges home is not enough, that becomes the vision and the drop becomes real. Next, we see Scottie clutched to Midges breast, whilst she holds him and soothes oh Johnny, Johnny. The common theme throughout is the presentation of Midge as the mother figure. In the scenes where they are shown together depict the mother/child relationship that they have. This is a reason why Scottie wouldnt be attracted to her like he is to Madeleine. She is too independent, whereas Madeleine is helpless and mysterious as we find out as the film continues. Fig. 11 Motherly love It is this scene that particularly also states Scotties condition as feminine. When he approaches Midge to ask her what the bra on a wire frame is, she relates the design is based on that on a bridge, the latest in revolutionary uplift made by an aircraft engineer. Not only is the relation of a bridge, which is a high place with regard to Scotties acrophobia, linked with the femininity of a womans undergarment, but the design of it has also been constructed by a man, thus saying that femininity is exactly that. Scottie cannot fulfil his role in society as a police man because of the fear, like Jefferies couldnt in Rear Window because of his injuries. Next we are presented with the exterior of Gavin Elsters office, then straight to Scottie and Elster having a conversation inside. Elster is asking Scottie to follow his wife for him. Around the office, there are mentions of ships, suggesting escape, and also references of the old San Francisco, relating to the power and freedom you gained then, as a man, again, this is mentioned later on whilst Scottie and Midge are talking to Pop Leibel in his bookstore. This relates to the conversation they are having about Elster wife, she is the object in the conversation between the two men, an intensifier of the taboo desire that we often see within films; one woman and two men who both lust after her. The position of power is also shifting between Scottie and Elster. When we first enter the room, Elster is sitting behind his desk, whilst Scottie is wandering around the office, looking at things, he then gets up and explains what he wants Scottie to do, taking power by positioning himself high er than him. Fig. 12 Stances of power Next the viewer is positioned inside the restaurant and is introduced to Madeleine with Scottie. The camera pans across the restaurant and comes to rest upon Madeleines back, her bare shoulders showing. She is shown as an object of desire; a close-up allows us to see her features as a still portrait, like that of the painting of Carlotta Valdez as she gracefully glides through the restaurant in a dream like manner. From this instance she is a mysterious object of desire that we must know more about. She has no idea that our gaze is upon her, she is helpless to it; we are an accomplice to Scottie, if not already him, and what it is in turn we are going to discover about Madelines secret life. When Scottie follows Madeleine in his car, it is downhill, to an alleyway. He follows her inside, through the back door in which she enters, where she is buying flowers. We are seeing from Scotties point of view. When he spies in through a crack in the door, this is how we see her also. When she turns, we see her reflection on the mirrored door that Scottie gazing through the door, completely unbeknown to her. She is surrounded by flowers, bathed in a soft light, enhancing her subtle beauty and femininity accompanied by a haunting music. Is she somehow a mirrored image of Scottie/the viewer? Koftman (1985 cited in Modelski 1989) stated that mens fascination with [the] eternal feminine is nothing but fascination with their own double, and the feeling of uncanniness, Unheimlichkeit, that men experience is the same as what one feels in the face of any double, and ghost, in the face of the abrupt reappearance of what one thought had been overcome or lost forever. This links back to Freud s castration complex. The view of the camera is very much from Scotties point of view, subjective, only further reiterating the point that the feminine is seen as lacking and the masculine is to look. Fig. 13 The perfect and unobtainable Within this scene, another thing to note is the recurrent theme of the oil painting, with the surround of flowers, but also the mirror, not only relating to the Koftman quote above, but also briefly I would like to touch upon John Berger. Within his essays, Ways of Seeing, he talks of the relevance of mirrors, that they reflect the judgemental gaze of others, as well as her own. They are also a symbol of vanity. If a woman is seen surveying herself in the mirror, it is for the benefit of the male, showing her subservience and willingness to become pleasing to the eye, but also her vanity. This in turn can is relatable to Freuds theory of the Electra Complex and Penis Envy. Her affections are transferred from her father to other men to give her what she ultimately wants, due to her lack of a penis, which is a child. This is turn leads onto a point made by Jacques Lacan, whereby he states that the mirror stage of a childs development is crucial so it can place itself within the world and relate to others. Much like Freud stated within the Oedipus and Castration complex, whereby the son relates to his father, wanting to be like him and grow into a man so he can have a woman of his own, like his father has his mother. The screen within the cinema frames its actors much like the mirror frames the self. As Mulvey states; It is the birth of the long love affair/despair between image and self-image which has found such intensity of expression in film and such joyous recognition in the cinema audience. (Mulvey, 2009: 18) When Madeleine falls into San Francisco bay, Scottie rescues her and takes her back to his house, undresses her and puts her to bed. Once again, he is the hero and she is the helpless woman who, without Scottie, would be dead. His obsession is becoming more and more with her. Whilst in his apartment, her near first concern is of the pins from her hair and her handbag, so she can find a mirror and put her hair up, making herself presentable for Scottie. The relation of power is also clear in this scene; Madeleine is sitting on the floor, whilst Scottie takes the higher position of the sofa arm to question her, to watch her. She is the object of desire; of his desire, as well as the male viewers object of desire. From here we can see the relation to any stereotypical fairytale; the hero rescues the helpless princess from the evil man/woman, although there is more to fairytale, for the use of this essay, I am outlining it in this very simplified manner. Take, for example, Cinderella, she is a servant to her stepmother and step sisters, but she goes to the ball, meets the prince, who does everything in his power to find his princess and rescue her. Freud also made this point, highlighting the lengths a man will go to, to rescue the woman they love, even if, as Freud (1910 cited in Perron 2005) stated, another man can claim right of possession, Madeleine being Elsters wife. This in turn, can be linked closely with the Oedipus complex. Freud (1910 cited in Berman 1997) also stated A man rescuing a woman from water in a dream means that he makes her his own mother. In the bell tower scene where Scottie is chasing Madeleine, it is where his masculinity is compromised once more because of his acrophobia. He should have taken his role as a man and stopped her from falling, he should have rescued her, but he failed and she fell to his death. Elster had hired Scottie to follow his wife, but once again, he failed at his job, like he did as a policeman. Scottie is plagued by nightmares of the tragic event. He is falling, like Madeleine, haunted by Carlotta Valdez, colours flash red, signifying not only Scotties vertigo but also his fantasies. Fig. 14 Re-occurring fall When Scottie is back in San Francisco, every woman he sees bears a resemblance to Madeleine. Women on the street, in restaurantsHe seems like a broken man, not the strong counterpart that the audience want to relate to. He follows a woman, Judy, to her apartment and asks her out to dinner. Slowly, we can see Scottie becoming more and more obsessed with Judy, asserting his masculinity by offering to take care of her, but her flowers, clothes. Judy is becoming an ideal passive counterpart to Scotties active sadistic voyeurism. She knows her part is to perform, and only by playing it through and then replaying it can she keep Scotties erotic interest (Mulvey, 2009: 25). We, as an audience, have already made the discovery that Judy really is Madeleine, that she played a part for Elster. It is an uncomfortable discovery as Scottie doesnt know. We almost feel as though we are cheating him, hes falling into a trap and we cant warn him. We are only watchers to the scenes playing out before us, regardless of us; things will still happen and go forth. The essential fact is to get real suspense you must let the audience have information (Hitchcock cited in Bays, 2004). Scottie is trying his hardest to change Judy to Madeleine, and she is letting him. The roles of passive female and the active male are mirrored in the re-enactment of a scene that happened between Scottie and Madeleine. She is a visually objectified other, confirmed by her dress, make up and style. Also, this, again, can be linked back to the Oedipus/Castration complex, when the sole object of the boys desire was his mother. In his eyes, she was the perfect woman and satisfied all his needs. It is only when Scottie is happy that Judy looks enough like Madeleine that he begins to become sexually attracted and interested in her. He has successfully turned her into a fetish; he has eliminated the threat of castration. The tower in which Madeleine and Judy both fell off are very symbolically phallic, re-asserting the masculinity of the situation. The film makes the audience confront their own lives and past.